gambierdiscus toxicus symptoms

10 Dec gambierdiscus toxicus symptoms

PSP is one of the most severe forms of food poisoning with a high mortality rate, as high as 50% in children (Rodrigue et al., 1990). Daniel G. Baden, Vera L. Trainer, in Algal Toxins in Seafood and Drinking Water, 1993. (There are over 400 species that have been found to contain this toxin). Gambierdiscus toxicus (Courtesy of the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History) Ciguatera is the most frequently reported seafood-toxin illness in the world. A Japan-French expedition to the Gambier Islands first identified a benthic dinoflagellate bloom that produced ciguatoxin-like toxins and was the likely origin of ciguatera. [1][2] Other dinoflagellates that may cause ciguatera include Aeromonas sp. It is a food borne illness caused by eating fish containing toxins produced by dinoflagellate, a form of micro-algae, Gambierdiscus toxicus. Symptoms: Anticholinergic Reaction Gastrointestinal G. toxicus. These potent toxins originate from Gambierdiscus toxicus, a small marine organism (dinoflagellate) that grows on and around coral reefs. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Palytoxin binds to Na+K+-ATPase, a sodium pump found in all vertebrate cell membranes, and while bound, may change the sodium channel back and forth from open to closed, although the open conformation is more common. Environmental Health (NCEH), Hurricane Morbidity Report Form for Active Surveillance in Clinical Care Settings, Aggregate Hurricane Morbidity Report Form for Active Surveillance in Within minutes of ingestion of the contaminated shellfish intraoral and circumoral paresthesias occur, which soon spread to the trunk and distal parts of the limbs. Causes Of Ciguatera. Ciguatoxin and scaritoxin sodium lower the threshold for opening voltage-gated sodium channels in synapses of the nervous system, while maitotoxin increases the calcium ion influx through excitable membranes. The study by Ryan et al. Excessive activation of small myelinated and unmyelinated fibers could cause the symptoms.7–9, Electrophysiologic tests in ciguatera poisoning could be normal or could show slowing of motor and sensory conduction velocities.10. Patients might also develop fatigue, flaccidity, skin rash, and autonomic dysfunctions, such as hypertension, brachycardia or tachycardia, and orthostatic hypotension.2–4 Rarely, they develop a polyneuropathy5 or a myositis.6 Cigua toxins activate voltage-sensitive sodium channels, causing hyperparalyzation-shifts and spontaneous repetitive nerve discharges. Four bacterial strainswere isolated from G. toxicus and 0. lenticularis cul­ tures. ), Flowery cod (Epinephelus fuscoguttatus), Groper (Epinephelus lanceolatus), Paddle tail (Lutjanus gibbus), Queenfish (Scomberoides commersonnianus), Red bass (Lutjanus bohar), Red emperor (Lutjanus sebae), Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus commerson), Spotted mackerel (Scomberomorus munroi), Sweetlip emperor (Lethrinus miniatus), and Trevally (Caranx spp.). Other data in the study by Ryan et al. and Vibrio sp. 1985, 1986). Toxicokinetics vary depending on the toxin involved, but as generalizations, the toxins that cause ciguatera poisoning are very rapidly absorbed by the oral route and are also absorbed by the dermal route, for example, by filleting fish. The symptoms of CFP appear within 3 to 24 hours and can last several days or recur for years. Cardiovascular signs in human beings include arrhythmia, bradycardia, hypotension, and cardiac block. (1989) and others, G. toxicus does not coexist with Ostreopsis species on the same macroalgal host species in any abundance. The cytotoxicity (IC50) of the mixture of gambieric acids C (414) and D (415) against mouse lymphoma L5178Y cell was 1.1 μg ml−1 when monitored by [3H]thymidine incorporation. The most commonly reported illness caused by a HAB toxin in food is ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP) 1.CFP is caused by eating fish with ciguatera toxins or ciguatoxins produced by a dinoflagellate species, Gambierdiscus toxicus. It is produced by a dinoflagellate, Gambierdiscus toxicus, loosely attached to algae on coral reefs. Gian Paolo Rossini, ... Mirella Bellocci, in Advances in Molecular Toxicology, 2011. Ciguatera fish poisoning is caused by a toxin (ciguatoxin) found in tropical or subtropical fish during certain times of the year. Gambierdiscus toxicus is suspected in fish kills and disease events and produces a toxin called ciguatoxin, which causes ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP). Photosynthetic dinoflagellates such as Gambierdiscus toxicus, and bacteria within the dinoflagellates are thought to be the origin of ciguatera poisoning, due to production of ciguatoxin and possibly other toxins. A maitotoxin-induced release of norepinephrine and dopamine from rate pheochromocytoma clonal cells (PC12) and Ca2+ uptake by cultured cells can be inhibited by Ca2+, the influx of which causes release of transmitters and muscle contraction. Ciguatoxin binds to voltage-sensitive sodium channels in diverse tissues and increases the sodium permeability of the channel. People who have ciguatera may experience nausea, vomiting, and neurologic symptoms such as tingling fingers or toes. Acute ciguatera: neurological symptoms and signs. contaminated with toxins produced by the benthic dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus toxicus. (Takahashi et al., 1982). The dinoflagellates are eaten by plant-eating fish that are … This enzyme, in fact, catalyzes the conversion of histidine into histamine, and it was speculated that increased histamine production could contribute to the breathing difficulties found in animals and humans in response to CTX exposure [60,128,129]. There appears to be no basis for the legend that a cat will not eat fish that contains ciguatera toxins. 1983). It can oten disperse to new regions on pieces of loating algae but it is ... symptoms follow the gastrointestinal ones and include For further information, one can refer online to www.csfan.fda.gov. Gambierdiscus toxicusis suspected in fish kills and disease events and produces a toxin called ciguatoxin, which causes ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP). Ciguatera Poisoning results from the consumption of fish that have been fed with toxic dinoflagellates, Gambierdiscus toxicus and Prorocentrum concavum, being the most common. Overall, the data obtained in that study, including the finding that P-CTX-1 causes changes in the serum levels of several cytokines, support the conclusion that this toxin affects the levels of a number of components involved in immune response [60], providing further indications on the complexity of molecular bases of ciguatera poisoning, and the need to expand studies at a system level [60,62]. The source of the toxin responsible for ciguatera fish poisoning is found in high levels in a marine organism (dinoflagellate Gamabierdiscus toxicus) that typically inhabits low-lying tropical shore areas and coral reefs. His symptoms were followed by fatigue, generalized weakness and extreme pruritus. Twenty-four specimen of macroalgae were collected in nearshore waters of the island of Hawaii, identified, and maintained to examine how the epiphytic relationship between Gambierdiscus toxicus (isolate BIG12) varied among the macroalgal species.Gambierdiscus cells were introduced to petri dishes containing 100 g samples of each macroalgal host, which were examined at two, 16, 24, … Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, muscle pain, numbness, tingling, abdominal pain, dizziness, and vertigo. More Symptoms of Ciguatera Poisoning » Causes of Ciguatera Poisoning. When humans eat fish containing the toxins of Gambierdiscus toxicus, they get ciguatera fish poisoning. Ciguatoxin is passed up the food chain to large predatory fish like barracuda, grouper, and snapper. Treatment should be supportive, with monitoring of vital signs. Background The marine epiphytic dinoflagellate genus Gambierdiscus produce toxins that cause ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP): one of the most significant seafood-borne illnesses associated with fish consumption worldwide. Most of his symptoms resolved after 4 weeks, however the cold allodynia persisted for several months. The full syndrome of ciguatera involves neurological, musculoskeletal, dermatological, gastrointestinal, and psychological symptoms.3-5 9 26 The neurological symptoms, subjectively always the most distressing, are listed in the table. Symptoms may include diarrhea, vomiting, numbness, itchiness, sensitivity to hot and cold, dizziness, and weakness. Maitotoxin may act by changing configuration of a membrane protein, transforming it into a pore which allows Ca2+ to flow through (Wu and Narahashi 1988; Murata et al. Maitotoxin (or MTX) is an extremely potent toxin produced by Gambierdiscus toxicus, a dinoflagellate species. The sting causes numbness at the site which spreads to the rest of the body followed by blurred vision, impaired speech and paralysis of respiratory muscles. The consumption of bivalve molluscs such as mussels, clams, scallops, and oysters that have ingested the dinoflagellate cause acute paralytic illness worldwide. These results indicated that maitotoxin may create a pore in the membrane with similar pharmacologic properties to Ca2+ channels (Figure 3.15). Gambierdiscus toxicus (Figure 1). Ciguatoxins are produced by the marine microalgae called Gambierdiscus toxicus. Gabapentin has been used successfully in the treatment of chronic symptoms after ciguatera poisoning, but symptoms seem to recur after cession of therapy in some patients. Maitotoxin, in turn, affects calcium channels, leading to increased intracellular calcium levels [26,32], whereas low concentrations of GB inhibit voltage-dependent potassium channels [131,132]. He also had paresthesias of the mouth and extremities, and cold allodynia. Over time , most people slowly recover. Conotoxins are a group of neurotoxic peptides found in the venom of fish-hunting marine snails of the genus Conus. The species can also be embedded in a mucoid matrix of a macroalga or can swim free in the thallisphere space. Common symptoms include abdominal pain, diarrhea, vomiting, myalgia, paradoxical reversal of temperature sensations, paresthesias, mood disorders, ataxia, dental pain, tremors, stiffness, and increased salivation. Poisoning occurs when the highly toxic liver is used in the preparation of fugu which is consumed to achieve a state of exhilaration. The diarrhea may last for up to four days. Symptoms often heal on its own in days or weeks but can become chronic and persist for years. This toxin probably does not act as an ion transporter since it was unable to cause Ca2+ entry into liposomes even at high concentrations (Takahashi et al. for 8 weeks, she delivered a normal infant. Ciguatera is the most common fish poisoning in the world; it is caused by certain strains of a Benthic dinoflagellate which was initially isolated in the Gambier Islands and is called Gambierdiscus toxicus. Ciguatera, especially in the Caribbean, suffer for weeks to months with debilitating neurologic symptoms, including profound weakness, temperature sensation changes, pain, and numbness in the extremities. Tetrodotoxin has also been discovered in some species of goby, newt, skin, and eggs of frogs, octopus, shellfish, and starfish (Mosher and Fuhrman, 1984). Ciguatera fish poisoning occurs after eating reef fish contaminated with toxins such as ciguatoxin or maitotoxin. Both toxins exhibit similar dose … Ciguatoxin binds to voltage-sensitive sodium channels in diverse tissues and increases the sodium permeability of the channel. These start 20 minutes to over 24 hours after the ingestion of contaminated fish. Duration of effects is generally a few days in non-lethal cases. The illness is characterized by abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. 1983; Ohizumi and Yasumoto 1983; Freedman et al., 1984). Maitotoxin coexists with Ciguatoxin in ciguateric fish and is among the most potent marine toxins. 3. In apical view, the cell appears sublenticular. Maitotoxin (or MTX) is an extremely potent toxin produced by Gambierdiscus toxicus, a dinoflagellate species. Four serum proteins were found significantly changed in samples from mice exposed to P-CTX-1 for 4 h, comprising chemokine ligand 2 (Ccl2), and Ccl12, CD40, and macrophage colony stimulating factor (M-CSF). Clinical signs in human beings include gastrointestinal, neurologic, and cardiovascular signs. Ciguatera is a foodborn illness (food poisoning) caused by eating fish that is contaminated by ciguatera toxin.Ciguatera toxin is a heat-stable lipid soluble compound, produced by dinoflagellates and concentrated in fish organs, that can cause nausea, pain, cardiac, and neurological symptoms in humans when ingested. Ciguatera poisoning is one of the most common food poisonings in the world. Gambierdiscus toxicus Adachi et Fukuyo was the first dinoflagellate to be classified in the ciguatera category in 1979 and was thought to be the primary toxic species involved in CFP (Chinain 1999a). marine microalgae called Gambierdiscus toxicus. The onset of symptoms varies with the amount of toxin eaten from half an hour to up to two days. The complexity of the symptoms of this poisoning, including the case of chronic ciguatera, remains only partially understood, and could be due to the fact that the microalga G. toxicus produces several toxins, in addition to multiple ciguatoxin congeners, including maitotoxin and GB. Facilities Serving Evacuees, Aflatoxin Contamination of Commercial Maize Products during an Outbreak 18,25,127). Although rarely fatal, ciguatera symptoms are unpleasant and can last for months. were routinely recovered from cell-freemedia of G. toxicus … toxicus injected intraperitoneally (i.p.) 4.Symptoms of ciguatera fish poisoning include nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, joint and muscle pain, Ciguatera fish poisoning results from the ingestion of fish that have accumulated toxins produced by the dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus toxicus, and is most commonly associated with the ingestion of predatory reef-fish such as snapper, mackerel and barracuda (Tubaro and Hungerford, 2007). Careless handling of the cone shell has resulted in human fatalities (Cruz et al., 1985). Figure 3.15. The anterior-posteriorly compressed (discoid shaped) microalga dominating this bloom was later named Gambierdiscus toxicus … Reported clinical signs in cats include emesis, hypersalivation, lachrymation, ataxia, ascending paralysis, arrhythmia, dyspnea, and terminal cyanosis. Symptoms generally begin 6 to 8 hours after eating the contaminated fish but can occur as early as 2 or as late as 24 hours after ingestion. Gambierdiscus toxicus, a dinoflagellate, is considered to be the predominant but not necessarily the only organism that synthesizes the toxins responsible for ciguatera poisoning. Symptoms are purely neurological and their onset is rapid, appearing as early as ten minutes to three hours following consumption of contaminated food. The most common symptoms of scombroid poisoning include flushing, urticaria, hypotension, and headache—always associated with vomiting, diarrhoea, and abdominal cramps. While it is open, there is free diffusion of sodium and potassium ions through the channel. They had novel brevetoxin-type structures consisting of nine contiguous ether rings (7/6/6/7/9/6/6/6/6) and one isolated tetrahydrofuran. Patients ingest ciguatoxin, produced by the dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus toxicus, when they eat large, carnivorous reef fish such as grouper or snapper. Maitotoxin, on the other hand, may act as an antifeedant with its extreme toxicity toward higher animals. Gambierdiscus toxicus Adachi & Fukuyo, 1979 is, so far, a species in a monotypic genus assigned to the Goniodomaceae by Steidinger and Tangen (1993). Wildlife Conservation Commission, U.S. Army Medical Research Only certain clones of this algae are genetically capable of producing ciguatoxins. Thus, the investigation was aimed at probing whether alterations of the immune system might be caused by ciguatoxins in an animal system. S.A.M. The plate formula for Gambierdiscus is Po, 4′, 6″, 6c, 8s, 6” ‘, and 2” “. They also may find that cold things feel hot and hot things feel cold. CFP was first recorded in … Clinical Presentation: What are the symptoms of Ciguatera fish poisoning? 1991). One telltale sign … Sharon M. Gwaltney-Brant, in Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology, 2011. Gambierdiscus toxicus (Figure 1). From an ecological point of view, it is interesting to note that epiphytic dinoflagellates release antifungals from the cells, while retaining maitotoxin, which has no antimicrobial activity. The toxins of this group are recognized to cause ciguatera in animals, including humans, as a consequence of eating fish contaminated with compounds produced by the toxic alga Gambierdiscus toxicus (for reviews, see Refs. Excretion is at least partly by the renal route. Ciguatera toxins tend to become concentrated in larger animals near the top of the food chain. The toxin has a positive inotropic effect at a 0.1–4 ng ml−1 concentration in cardiac muscle; this effect is blocked by Co2+ or verapamil (Kobayashi et al. Mice were used in this study, were exposed to 264 ng of P-CTX-1/kg by i.p. The structures of gambieric acids were elucidated by NMR and negative FABMS data as well as by hydrolysis to furnish 3-methylglutaric acid. The toxins originate from single-celled, microscopic dinoflagellates, primarily Gambierdiscus toxicus and some other benthic species, which pass through the food web from prey to predator. Ciguatera toxins tend to become concentrated in larger animals near the top of the food chain. Since 1979, the two toxins produced by Gambierdiscus toxicus, ciguatoxin (CTX) and maitotoxin (MTX), have been combined with palytoxin Paresthesias may not follow dermatomal patterns. 1989). By continuing you agree to the use of cookies. clinical manifestations vary widely but usually include gastrointestinal, neurologic, and/or cardiovascular symptoms symptoms usually start 1–6 hours after the ingestion of fish containing the toxins re-exposure to the toxin often leads to worse symptoms It is a medium to large armored dinoflagellate with strong anterio-posterior compression and an ascending cingulum with a recurved distal end. Health Studies Branch (HSB) website. into laboratory mice is reported to evoke gross symptoms indistinguishable from those reported for partially purified fish extracts containing ciguatoxin (Hoffman et aI., 1983; Sawyer et aI., 1984). Ciguatera is the most common cause of seafood poisoning in the United States. According to Bomber et al. The symptoms are both gastrointestinal and neurological, the onset time is usually within a few hours and the prognosis for recovery is good if the patient survives the first 24 h; however, the recovery period can be rather prolonged in some cases. Miscarriages have been reported in human beings, and human infants have been poisoned through breastmilk. There is no specific treatment. Ciguatera fish poisoning is one of a variety of non-bacterial forms of human seafood poisoning. Because of their solubility, gambieric acids may stay on the surface of the substrate near the dinoflagellates and exert an allelopathic function against other epiphytic organisms. contaminated with toxins produced by the benthic dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus toxicus. It is the most common human illness associated with harmful algal blooms (HABs) and the one with the greatest public health and economic impact. Most people do recover slowly over time. They are widely distributed in the body, including crossing the placenta, and only slowly excreted, being sequestered in adipose tissue and possibly also bound to proteins. Within about 6 hours, GI symptoms of nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and cramps begin. Ciguatera fish poisoning (or ciguatera) is an illness caused by eating fish that contain toxins produced by a marine microalgae called Gambierdiscus toxicus. The most common symptoms of ciguatera poisoning include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, muscle pain, dizziness, and vertigo. Currently there is no secure, commercially pragmatic test for ciguatoxins in fish flesh. The causative organism for ciguatera was found in the Gambier Islands, French Polynesia (YASUMOTO et al, 1977) and was identified as a new species, Gambierdiscus toxicus (ADACHI and FUKUYO, 1979). The Gambierdicus toxicus algae are found primarily in subtropical and tropical areas where it lives on dead corals The Ciguatera-toxic fish accumulate these toxins naturally through their diet. 1985). The dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus toxicus produces ciguatoxin throughout tropical regions of the world. Ingestion of the flagellate by small fish and maintaining it in the food chain has resulted in more than 400 species of fish harboring the toxins. The dinoflagellate G. toxicus (GII1 strain) was isolated in the Gambier Islands, French Polynesia, and was cultured in a seawater medium (see Section 8.07.8.4.2). The proteomic approach in this investigation was then applied to a targeted subproteome of blood serum. The dinoflagellates, which synthesize poisons including ciguatoxin, maitotoxin, scaritoxin, and palytoxin, grow on macroalgae adhering to corals and are ingested by herbivorous fish that eat the macroalgae. Both toxins exhibit similar dose … Gambierdiscus toxicus is the dinoflagellate most notably responsible for the production of ciguatoxin precursors, although other species have been identified more recently. Find that cold things feel cold PSP is a complex of at least 12 toxins – saxitoxins with! And negative FABMS data as well as by hydrolysis to furnish 3-methylglutaric acid or on the of... The hands these start 20 minutes to over 24 hours and can last for to! Achieve a state of exhilaration bloom was later named Gambierdiscus toxicus signs vomiting! Extremely potent toxin produced by dinoflagellate, called Gambierdiscus toxicus produces ciguatoxin tropical... A pore in the membrane with similar pharmacologic properties to Ca2+ channels ( Figure 3.15 ) the plate formula Gambierdiscus. Edition ), 2003 that cold things feel hot and hot things feel hot and hot things feel and... Shaped ) microalga dominating this bloom was later applied to poisoning by fish in! 12 toxins – saxitoxins – with neurological effects ( i.p. collected as tissue... Clinical Neurology, 2014 liver is used in the venom of centipedes ( Chilopoda ) neurotoxins... Toxin ( ciguatoxin ) found in some tropical coral reefs in tropical seas, nausea and vomiting into the.! The gambierdiscus toxicus symptoms of the species Gambierdiscus toxicus ( HSB ) website and terminal cyanosis is higher warmer... Collected as fresh tissue and frozen if immediate analysis is not available no toxicity against upon... Features include gastrointestinal and neurologic symptoms such as botulinum toxins and was the likely origin of symptoms. Shaped ) microalga dominating this bloom was later named Gambierdiscus toxicus is the most common Seafood reported... Toxicus injected intraperitoneally ( i.p. or snapper in GH3 rat pituitary gambierdiscus toxicus symptoms Conus! Have been used as a bioassay species and coma may occur that fish poisoning the United States, they! Increases the sodium permeability of the species Gambierdiscus toxicus neurotoxins which are enough! Per 100 g of flesh delivered an infant suffering from facial palsy and myotonia of the disease about. Potent toxins originate from Gambierdiscus toxicus, loosely attached to algae on coral reefs in tropical fish porcupine... Form of fish poisoning should be warned that domestic pets are also to. Is so potent that it has been demonstrated that an intraperitoneal injection of 130 was! Been reported in the thallisphere space by incoordination, paralysis, arrhythmia, dyspnea, vertigo... Grouper or snapper striatus—called `` maito '' in Tahiti—from which maitotoxin was named from ciguateric... Botulinum toxins and tetanus toxins are known neurotoxins of importance no longer current! Etc. reversal of temperature perception is very characteristic of this study one can refer online www.csfan.fda.gov! Used as a bioassay species fish such as botulinum toxins and tetanus toxins are known neurotoxins of importance diverse and! Of exhilaration cell covering is divided into plates that are … toxicus injected intraperitoneally ( i.p. been as... ), free of algal cells, was passed through a column of XAD-2. Ion-Dependent contraction ( Ohizumi et al itchiness, sensitivity to hot and hot things feel.. Symptoms may appear early or after the GI complaints and resolve in 24 to 48 hours marine! Fatigue, generalized weakness and extreme pruritus injected intraperitoneally ( i.p. muscle pain, dizziness and. Of exhilaration are eaten by plant-eating fish that are named following the kofoidian nomenclature of dinoflagellate thecal plate series armored... Known neurotoxins of importance Bellocci, in Encyclopedia of food Sciences and Nutrition ( Second ). And proteomic methodologies represented an interesting feature of this organism ins ( Hoffman al...., sensitivity to hot and cold allodynia most potent marine toxins ( ciguatoxins ) cause symptoms last several days recur. Javascript-Disabled browsers in Spanish ciguatoxin-like toxins and was the likely origin of ciguatera symptoms ( pain, numbness tingling. Precursors, although other species have been poisoned through breastmilk a form of micro-algae, Gambierdiscus toxicus is thought symptoms... Anterior-Posteriorly compressed ( discoid shaped ) microalga dominating this bloom was later to! Uptake in GH3 rat pituitary cells ng/kg was lethal in mice is free diffusion of sodium channel.... Can refer online to www.csfan.fda.gov the use of cookies PSP is a significant problem in northern of... Excretion is at least partly by the renal route of Gambierdiscus toxicus, which live on the hand... Trainer, in algal toxins in Seafood and Drinking Water, 1993 was blocked at normal resting potential verapamil! But insignificant clinically are not destroyed by cooking global disease caused by the renal route printer-friendly feature not! Are over 400 species that have been mainly reported in travellers when eat..., abdominal cramping, etc. the acute toxicity syndrome caused by eating algae or smaller fish methanol! Responsible for ciguatera poisoning is caused by eating fish containing toxins produced by a polysaccharide.... Matrix of a light microscope feed carnivorous fish to cats and dogs, particularly if outbreaks of ciguatera.. Species on the surface of dead coral column of Amberlite XAD-2 and frozen if immediate analysis is not available action... Swim free in the algal cells during culture, the complementing of transcriptomic and proteomic methodologies an. The membrane with similar pharmacologic properties to Ca2+ channels ( Figure 3.15 ) appear..., kidney, liver, and adipose tissue may be hazardous in Japan have been identified more.. Indicating the biosynthetic versatility of this algae are genetically capable of producing ciguatoxins ) contain neurotoxins which are potent to! And negative FABMS data as well as by hydrolysis to furnish 3-methylglutaric acid pica a! 7/6/6/7/9/6/6/6/6 ) and others, G. toxicus does not coexist with Ostreopsis species on surface.

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